# Machine Level Programming

## History of Intel Processors

* Eveolutionary design: **Backwards compatible** up until `8086` in 1978

* **C**omplex **I**nstruction **S**et **C**omputer (CISC)

**RISC vs CISC**

* CISC has variable length instructions
* RISC has constant length instructions

1. Intel x86(8086)
   1. IA32 to IA64
   2. (after x86-64) EM64T(almost same as AMD x86-64)
2. AMD x86-64

## C, Assembly, machine code

* ***Architecture***: The parts of a processor design that one needs to understand or write assembly/machine code
  * **ISA(Instruction Set Architecture)**
    * e.g., x86, IA32, Itanium, x86-64, ARM
* ***Microarchitecture***: Implementation of the architecture

form of code:

* Machine Code: the byte-level programs that a processor executes
* Assembly Code: A text representation of machine code

### Assembly/Machine Code View

Programmer-Visible State (shown by ISAs)
* PC(Program Counter)
  * Address of next instruction
  * RIP in (x86-64)
* Register file
  * Heavily used program data
* Condition codes
  * store status information about most recent arithmetic or logical op
  * Used for conditional branching
* Memory(external)

Compiling Into Assembly
```c {cmd=gcc, args=[-Og -x c -c $input_file -o 3_1.o]}
long plus(long x, long y);

void sumstore(long x, long y, long *dest) {
    long t = plus(x, y);
    *dest = t;
}
```

```sh {cmd hide}
while ! [ -r 3_1.o ]; do sleep .1; done; objdump -d 3_1.o
```

### Integer Registers

* In x86-64
`ax` `bx` `cx` `dx` `si` `di` `sp` `bp` (in 8bytes `r` 4bytes `e`)
`r8` `r9` `r10` `r11` `r12` `r13` `r14` `r15` (in 4bytes: add `d`)

* In IA32
`eax`(32bit): 16bit `ax`(`ah`, `al`); origin: accumulate
`ecx`(32bit): 16bit `cx`(`ch`, `cl`); origin: counter
`edx`(32bit): 16bit `bx`(`bh`, `bl`); origin: data
`ebx`(32bit): 16bit `dx`(`dh`, `dl`); origin: base
`esi`(32bit): 16bit `si`(`sih`, `sil`); origin: source index
`edi`(32bit): 16bit `di`(`dil`, `dil`); origin: destination index
`esp`(32bit): 16bit `sp`(`spl`, `spl`); origin: stack pointer
`ebp`(32bit): 16bit `bp`(`bpl`, `bpl`); origin: base pointer

#### understanding `movq`

In x86asm, There are three operand types: **immediate, register, memory**
* immediate: constant integer data like `$0x400` `$-533`
* register: one of 16 integer regs
  * e.g., `%rax`, `%r13`
  * but `%rsp` is reserved for special use
* memory: 8 bytes of memory at address given by register
  * e.g., `(%rax)`

**movq usage**
`movq $src, $dest`

* limit: Cannot do memory-memory transfer with a single instruction(because memory is external device to cpu)

**memory addressing modes**

`(R)` means `Mem[Reg[R]]`
`D(R)` means `Mem[Reg[R]+D]`, constant displacement `D` specifies offset

`movq 8(%rbp), %rdx`

<table>
<tr>
<td>

```c
int swap (long *xp, long *yp) {
    long t0 = *xp;
    long t1 = *yp;
    *xp = t1;
    *yp = t0;
}
```
</td>
<td>

```nasm
swap:
    movq (%rdi), %rax
    movq (%rsi), %rdx
    movq %rdx, (%rdi)
    movq %rax, (%rsi)
    ret
```
</td>
</tr>
</table>

Complete form of memory addressing modes:
`D(Rb, Ri, S)` means `Mem[Reg[Rb] + S*Reg[Ri] + D]`
* `D`: Constant "displacement"
* `Rb`: Base Register
* `Ri`: Index Register
* `S`: Scale Factor(1, 2, 4, or 8)

for example:

| `%rdx`   | `%rcx`   |
| -------- | -------- |
| `0xf000` | `0x0100` |

* `0x8(%rdx)` = `0xf008`
* `(%rdx, %rcx)` = `0xf100`
* `(%rdx, %rcx, 4)` = `0xf400`
* `0x80(,%rdx, 2)` = `0x1e080`

#### Arithmetic & Logical Operations

* `leaq $src, $dst`
    * computing address without memory reference like `p = &x[i]`
    * computing arithmetic expression `x + k * y`

* `addq $src, $dst`
* `subq $src, $dst`
* `imulq $src, $dst`
* `salq $src, $dst`
* `sarq $src, $dst`
* `shrq $src, $dst`
* `xorq $src, $dst`
* `andq $src, $dst`
* `orq $src, $dst`
all the above operator operates like `dest = dest # src`

* `incq $dest`
* `decq $dest`
* `negq $dest`
* `notq $dest`

## Control

**Processor State(x86-64, Partial)**
* Temporary data(`%rax`, ...)
* Location of runtime stack(`%rsp`)
* Location of current code control point(`%rip`, instruction point)
* Status of recent tests(`CF`, `ZF`, `SF`, `OF`)

### Condition Codes

* Single bit registers
  * `CF` Carry flag (for unsigned)
  * `SF` Sign flag (for signed)
  * `ZF` Zero flag
  * `OF` Overflow flag (for signed)

**Conditional Codes(Implicit Setting)**

Implicit setting is codes are set by arithmetic operations(`addq`, `subq`, `mulq`)
for example: `addq`: `t = a + b`
* `CF` set if carry out from most significant bit or unsigned overflow
* `ZF` set if `t == 0`
* `SF` set if `t < 0` (as signed)
* `OF` set if two's-complement overflow or signed overflow
`(a > 0 && b > 0 && (a + b) < 0) || (a < 0 && b < 0 &&  (a + b) >= 0)`

The codes are not implictly set by `leaq`, because it is not designed to be used as arithmetic but used as **address calculation**. so it cannot affect to conditional codes.

**Conditional Codes(Explicit Setting)**

The codes are set explictly by compare instruction.

`cmpq b, a` is computing `a - b` without setting destination.

* `CF` set if carry out from most significant bit or unsigned overflow
* `ZF` set if `a == b` or `a - b == 0`
* `SF` set if `(a - b) < 0` (as signed)
* `OF` set if two's-complement overflow or signed overflow
`(a > 0 && b > 0 && (a - b) < 0) || (a < 0 && b < 0 &&  (a - b) >= 0)`

And explictly set by test instruction

`testq b, a` is computing `a & b` without setting destination.

Sets condition codes based on value of `a & b` it is useful to have one of the operands be a mask.

* `ZF` set when `a & b == 0`
* `SF` set when `a & b < 0`

**Reading Condition Codes**

`setX`: set single byte based on combination of condition codes

| setX    | effect           | desc                      |
| ------- | ---------------- | ------------------------- |
| `sete`  | `ZF`             | Equal / Zero              |
| `setne` | `~ZF`            | Not Equal / Not Zero      |
| `sets`  | `SF`             | Negative                  |
| `setns` | `~SF`            | Nonnegative               |
| `setg`  | `~(SF^OF) & ~ZF` | Greater (signed)          |
| `setge` | `~(SF^OF)`       | Greater or Equal (signed) |
| `setl`  | `SF^OF`          | Less (signed)             |
| `setle` | `(SF^OF) \| ZF`  | Less or Equal (signed)    |
| `seta`  | `~CF & ~ZF`      | Above (unsigned)          |
| `setb`  | `CF`             | Below (unsigned)          |

it deos not alter remaining bytes of registers. only use 1 byte register(`%al`, `%bl`)

```nasm
cmpq %rsi(y), %rdi(x)  # compare x and y
setg %al         # set when >(greater)
movzbl %al, %eax # move zero extend byte to long
ret
```

### Conditional Branches

#### Jumping

`jX` jump to different part of code depending on condition codes.

| jX    | condition        | desc                      |
| ----- | ---------------- | ------------------------- |
| `jmp` | 1                | Unconditional             |
| `je`  | `ZF`             | Equal / Zero              |
| `jne` | `~ZF`            | Not Equal / Not Zero      |
| `js`  | `SF`             | Negative                  |
| `jns` | `~SF`            | Nonnegative               |
| `jg`  | `~(SF^OF) & ~ZF` | Greater (signed)          |
| `jge` | `~(SF^OF)`       | Greater or Equal (signed) |
| `jl`  | `SF^OF`          | Less (signed)             |
| `jle` | `(SF^OF) \| ZF`  | Less or Equal (signed)    |
| `ja`  | `~CF & ~ZF`      | Above (unsigned)          |
| `jb`  | `CF`             | Below (unsigned)          |

Old Style Conditional Branch

```c {cmd=gcc args=[-Og -x c -fno-if-conversion -c $input_file -o 3_3.o]}
long absdiff(long x, long y) {
  long result;
  if (x > y) result = x - y;
  else result = y - x;
  return result;
}
```

```sh { cmd hide }
while ! [ -r 3_3.o ]; do sleep .1; done; objdump -d 3_3.o -Msuffix
```

**expressing with `goto`**

```c {cmd=gcc args=[-Og -x c -rno-if-conversion -c $input_file -o 3_4.o]}
long absdiff_j(long x, long y) {
  long result;
  int ntest = x <= y;
  if (ntest) goto Else;
  result = x-y;
  goto Done;
Else:
  result = y-x;
Done:
  return result;
}
```

#### Conditional Move

But this branchings are very disruptive to instruction flow through pipelines, **Conditional Moves** are highly used because they do not require control transfer.

```c {cmd=gcc args=[-O3 -x c -c $input_file -o 3_5.o]}
long absdiff(long x, long y) {
  long result;
  if (x > y) result = x - y;
  else result = y - x;
  return result;
}
```

```sh {cmd hide}
while ! [ -r 3_5.o ]; do sleep .1; done; objdump -d 3_5.o -Msuffix
```

However, there are several *bad cases* for conditional move.

* expansive computations
```c
val = Test(x) ? Hard1(x) : Hard2(x);
```
because both values are get computed. only simple computations are effective for conditional moves.
* risky computations
```c
val = p ? *p : 0;
```
both values get computed may have undesiarable effects.
* Computations with side effects
```c
val = x > 0 ? x*=7 : x+=3;
```
each expression has side-effect.

### Loop

#### do-while

<table>
<tr>
<td>

```c
long pcount_do(unsigned long x) {
  long result = 0;
  do {
    result += x & 0x1;
    x >>= 1;
  } while (x);
  return result;
}
```
</td>
<td>

```c {cmd=gcc args=[-Og -x c -c $input_file -o 3_6.o]}
long pcount_goto(unsigned long x) {
  long result = 0;
loop:
  result += x & 0x1;
  x >>= 1;
  if (x) goto loop;
  return result;
}
```
</td>
</tr>
</table>

```sh {cmd hide}
while ! [ -r 3_6.o ]; do sleep .1; done; objdump -d 3_6.o -Msuffix
```

**general do-while translation**

<table>
<tr>
<td>

```c
do {
  Body
} while (Test);
```
</td>
<td>

```c
loop:
  Body
  if (Test) goto loop;
```
</td>
</tr>
</table>

#### while

**general while translation#1**

it is called **jump-to-middle translation**, used with `-O0` (or `-Og`) flag.

<table>
<tr>
<td>

```c
while(Test) {
  Body
}
```
</td>
<td>

```c
  goto test;
loop:
  Body
test:
  if (Test)
    goto loop;
done:
```
</td>
</tr>
</table>

```c {cmd=gcc args=[-Og -x c -c $input_file -o 3_7.o]}
long pcount_while(unsigned long x) {
  long result = 0;
  while (x) {
    result += x & 0x1;
    x >>= 1;
  }
  return result;
}
```
```sh {cmd hide}
echo "jmp-to-middle translation"
while ! [ -r 3_7.o ]; do sleep .1; done; objdump -d 3_7.o -Msuffix
```

**general while translation#2**

while to do-while conversion, used with `-O1` flag.

<table>
<tr>
<td>

```c
while(Test) {
  Body
}
```
</td>
<td>

```c
if (!Test) goto done;
do {
  Body
} while (Test);
done:
```
</td>
<td>

```c
if (!Test) goto done;
loop:
  Body
  if (Test) goto loop;
done:
```
</td>
</tr>
</table>

```c {cmd=gcc args=[-O1 -x c -c $input_file -o 3_8.o]}
long pcount_while(unsigned long x) {
  long result = 0;
  while (x) {
    result += x & 0x1;
    x >>= 1;
  }
  return result;
}
```
```sh {cmd hide}
echo "while to do-while conversion"
while ! [ -r 3_8.o ]; do sleep .1; done; objdump -d 3_8.o -Msuffix
```

#### for loop form

<table>
<tr>
<td>

```c
for (init; test; update) {
  Body
}
```
</td>

</tr>
</table>

**for-to-while conversion**

<table>
<tr>
<td>

```c
for (Init; Test; Update) {
  Body
}
```
</td>
<td>

```c
Init;
while(Test) {
  Body
  Update;
}
```
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>

```c {cmd=gcc args=[-O3 -x c -c $input_file -o 3_9.o]}
#include <stddef.h>
#define WSIZE 8 * sizeof(int)

long pcount_for(unsigned long x) {
  size_t i;
  long result = 0;
  for (i = 0; i < WSIZE; i++) {
    unsigned bit = (x >> i) & 0x1;
    result += bit;
  }
  return result;
}
```
</td> <td>

```c {cmd=gcc args=[-O3 -x c -c $input_file -o 3_10.o]}
#include <stddef.h>
#define WSIZE 8 * sizeof(int)
long pcount_for(unsigned long x) {
  size_t i;
  long result = 0;
  i = 0;
  while(i < WSIZE) {
    unsigned bit = (x >> i) & 0x1;
    result += bit;
    i++;
  }
  return result;
}
```
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>

```sh {cmd hide}
while ! [ -r 3_9.o ]; do sleep .1; done; objdump -d 3_9.o -Msuffix
```
</td>
<td>

```sh {cmd hide}
while ! [ -r 3_10.o ]; do sleep .1; done; objdump -d 3_10.o -Msuffix
```
</td>
</tr>
</table>

for to do-while conversion, initial test can be optimized away.

### Switch

#### Jump Table Structure

Switch form

<table>
<tr>
<td>

```c {cmd=gcc args=[-Og -fno-asynchronous-unwind-tables -fno-stack-protector -x c -S $input_file -o 3_11.s]}
long switch_eg (long x, long y, long z) {
  long w = 1;
  switch(x) {
  case 1:
    w = y*z;
    break;
  case 2:
    w = y/z;
    /* Fall Through */
  case 3:
    w += z;
    break;
  case 5:
  case 6:
    w -= z;
    break;
  case 7:
    w *= z;
    break;
  default:
    w = 2;
  }
  return w;
}
```
</td>
<td>

```sh {cmd hide}
while ! [ -r 3_11.s ]; do sleep .1; done; cat 3_11.s
```
</td>
</tr>
</table>
## Procedures

Mechanisms in Procedures

* **Passing control**
  * to beginning of procedure code
  * back to return point
* **Passing data**
  * procedure arguments
  * return value
* **Memory management**
  * allocate during procedure execution
  * deallocate upon return

this mechanisms are all implemented with machine instructions. **x86-64 implementation** of a procedure used only those mechanisms required.

### Stack Structure

**x86-64 Stack**

Region of memory managed with *stack discipline*. It grows toward lower addresses. `%rsp` contains lowest stack address(address of top element).

`pushq $src`
* fetches operand at src
* decrement `%rsp` by 8
* write operand at address given by `%rsp`

`popq $dest`
* read value at address given by `%rsp`
* increment `%rsp` by 8
* store value at dest(must be register)

### Procedure Control Flow

```c {cmd=gcc args=[-Og -x c -c $input_file -o 3_12.o]}
long mult2(long x, long y) {
  long t = x * y;
  return t;
}

void multstore(long x, long y, long *dest) {
  long t = mult2(x, y);
  *dest = t;
}

```

```sh {cmd hide}
while ! [ -r 3_12.o ]; do sleep .1; done; objdump -d 3_12.o -Msuffix
```

Procedure call `call label`
* push return address on stack
* jmp to label
Return address:
* Address of the next instruction right after call
Procedure return: `ret`

### Procedure Data Flow

* registers
  * first 6 args: `%rdi`, `%rsi`, `%rdx`, `%rcx`, `%r8`, `%r9`
  * return value: `rax`
* stack

for example with above example

```sh {cmd hide}
while ! [ -r 3_12.o ]; do sleep .1; done; objdump -d 3_12.o -Msuffix
```

* with above `mult2` variable `t` is already stored in `%rax`
* so `movq %rax,(%rbx)` where `%rbx` is `long*dest`

### Managing local data

**Stack-Based Languages**

In languages that support recursion
* Code must be "reentrant", which means multiple simultaneous instantiations of single procedure.
* Need some place to store ***state*** of each instantiation: (**args**, **local variables**, **return pointer**)

In order to get this, **stack discipline** is used. state for given procedure needed for limited time(from called to return): Calle returns before caller does.

Stack allocated in **frames**, state for single procdure instantiation.
When function is called, a new stack frame is created above stack top. And then when the function is returned, a corresponding frame is popped. and return to previous call state.

#### Stack Frame

is consist of **return information**, **local storage(if needed)** and **temporary space(if needed)**.

* `%rbp` frame pointer
* `%rsp` stack pointer

Space allocated when enter procedure, "set-up" code and includes push by `call`.
Deallocated when return, "finish" code and includes pop by `ret`.

#### x86-64/Linux Stack Frame


* for compile w/o *stack canary*, add option `-fno-stack-protector`
```c {cmd=gcc args=[-Og -x c -fno-stack-protector -c $input_file -o 3_13.o]}
long incr(long *p, long val) {
  long x = *p;
  long y = x + val;
  *p = y;
  return x;
}
long call_incr() {
  long v1 = 15213;
  long v2 = incr(&v1, 3000);
  return v1 + v2;
}
```

```sh {cmd hide}
while ! [ -r 3_13.o ]; do sleep .1; done; objdump -d 3_13.o -Msuffix
```